@article {3127943,
	title = {Teachers{\textquoteright} knowledge and professional development for metacognitive instruction in the context of higher order thinking},
	year = {2022},
	month = {2022},
	abstract = {Metacognition is an invaluable part of instruction of higher order thinking (HOT). The goal of this article is to review previous studies about teachers{\textquoteright} knowledge and professional development (PD) in the area of metacognitive instruction in the context of teaching HOT. Part A of the article reviews 25 empirical studies assembled through a scoping review. Although each individual study consists of significant findings, our analysis indicates that, as a field, the study of teachers{\textquoteright} and pre-service teachers{\textquoteright} knowledge in this area is still rather preliminary and exploratory. The review draws several conclusions regarding the nature of the research in this area. However, lack of a common conceptual framework and research instruments precludes the possibility of drawing meaningful general conclusions from the findings of the 25 studies. Part B centers on 8 empirical and theoretical studies addressing the same conceptual framework centering on meta-strategic knowledge (MSK). The findings demonstrate the significance of metacognition in general, and MSK in particular for teachers{\textquoteright} ability to teach HOT, showing that it can be developed in both pre-service and in-service teachers{\textquoteright} education and PD. The findings highlight several specific characteristics of teachers{\textquoteright} knowledge and learning processes in this area. Yet, the findings also show that metacognition is rarely addressed in a satisfactory manner in large-scale efforts to teach HOT and that MSK is mostly neglected in PD programs for teaching inquiry learning. The implications for research and practice of HOT and metacognition are discussed.},
	isbn = {1556-1631},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-022-09310-1},
	author = {Zohar, Anat and Ben-Ari, Galit}
}
@article {3128112,
	title = {From Yeshiva to Academia: The Argumentative Writing Characteristics of Ultra-Orthodox Male Students},
	volume = {35},
	year = {2021},
	month = {2021},
	pages = {457 - 481},
	abstract = {This study compares the argumentative writing characteristics of students from different sociocultural backgrounds. We focused on Jewish ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) students, educated in a segregated religious school for boys (yeshiva), who are now attempting to integrate in secular higher education in Israel. To better understand the unique characteristics of this population, we reviewed 92 essays written by Haredi students, and compared them with 76 essays by public education~(PE) graduates. Our analysis was based on the cognitive and sociocultural perspectives of argumentation. Both bottom-up and top-down criteria were used to elicit the argumentative writing characteristics either emerging from the data or based on existing theories. Our primary findings indicate that Haredi students have distinct argumentative characteristics, including the use of more complex and dialectic arguments and unique persuasive tactics. These findings are discussed in light of previous research on yeshiva learning methods and recommendations are provided for adjusting the existing higher education curricula to suit both PE and Haredi students.},
	isbn = {1572-8374},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10503-020-09541-z},
	author = {Tsemach, Ehud and Zohar, Anat}
}
@article {3128120,
	title = {The intersection of gender and culture in argumentative writing},
	journal = {International Journal of Science EducationInternational Journal of Science Education},
	volume = {43},
	year = {2021},
	note = {doi: 10.1080/09500693.2021.1894499},
	month = {2021},
	pages = {969 - 990},
	publisher = {Routledge},
	isbn = {0950-0693},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2021.1894499},
	author = {Tsemach, Ehud and Zohar, Anat}
}
@article {3128122,
	title = {Gender-fair assessment of young gifted students{\textquoteright} scientific thinking skills},
	journal = {International Journal of Science EducationInternational Journal of Science Education},
	volume = {40},
	year = {2018},
	note = {doi: 10.1080/09500693.2018.1431419},
	month = {2018},
	pages = {595 - 620},
	publisher = {Routledge},
	isbn = {0950-0693},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2018.1431419},
	author = {Dori, Y. J. and Zohar, A. and Fischer-Shachor, D. and .Kohan-Mass, J and Carmi, M.}
}
@article {3128157,
	title = {Raising test scores vs. teaching higher order thinking (HOT): senior science teachers{\textquoteright} views on how several concurrent policies affect classroom practices},
	journal = {Research in Science \& Technological EducationResearch in Science \& Technological Education},
	volume = {36},
	year = {2018},
	note = {doi: 10.1080/02635143.2017.1395332},
	month = {2018},
	pages = {243 - 260},
	publisher = {Routledge},
	abstract = {AbstractPurposeThis study investigates how senior science teachers viewed the effects of a Raising Test Scores policy and its implementation on instruction of higher order thinking (HOT), and on teaching thinking to students with low academic achievements.BackgroundThe study was conducted in the context of three concurrent policies advocating: (a) improving test scores; (b) developing students{\textquoteright} thinking and inquiry skills; and (c) narrowing achievement gaps.MethodologyData collection was based on 20 interviews with senior science teachers.ResultsThe findings show that the senior teachers? expectations regarding a ?new spirit? calling for instruction of inquiry and HOT throughout the system did not materialize under the high stakes testing regime. Test preparation did involve intense engagement with HOT tasks. However, under the regime of high stakes testing, instruction of HOT seemed to take the form of ?mechanical instruction?, implying rote learning and drilling students in answering HOT items, rather than teaching for thinking in a meaningful way.ConclusionIn the presence of the aggressive policy addressing the need to raise test scores, the goal of teaching students to think, as well as the more specific goal of teaching low-achieving students to think was compromised in a considerable way.},
	isbn = {0263-5143},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2017.1395332},
	author = {Zohar, Anat and Alboher Agmon, Vered}
}
@article {3128337,
	title = {Large scale implementation of higher order thinking (HOT) in civic education: The interplay of policy, politics, pedagogical leadership and detailed pedagogical planning},
	volume = {21},
	year = {2016},
	month = {2016},
	pages = {85 - 96},
	abstract = {Educational policy documents from around the globe currently highlight the goal of teaching higher order thinking (HOT). Yet, most classrooms worldwide are still predominately characterized by a pedagogy of knowledge transmission, focusing on lower-order cognitive levels. This discrepancy points to the need to study issues of large scale implementation of HOT. The goal of this paper is to address this issue by examining two decades of implementing HOT in civic education in Israel, adopting a dual approach: first, the paper provides a historical analysis of relevant policies and political transformations, showing what happens to a policy decision to foster HOT over the years. The analysis shows that the way from a policy paper to what actually had taken place in classrooms is long and bumpy. The policy did cause several practical changes, but for more than 10 years, impacts were slim, sometimes causing unexpected (and undesirable) consequences. Then, the paper zooms-in on one specific period in which more elaborate implementation efforts took place. Significant hallmarks of the process were an emphasis on developing instructional leadership, detailed pedagogical planning, a blend of tight {\textquotedblleft}top down{\textquotedblright} processes with {\textquotedblleft}bottom up{\textquotedblright} processes characterized by growing freedom and autonomy, and modelling the culture of thinking.},
	keywords = {Civic studies, Higher order thinking (HOT), Instructional leadership, Large scale implementation},
	isbn = {1871-1871},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1871187116300220},
	author = {Zohar, Anat and Cohen, Adar}
}
@article {3128316,
	title = {School autonomy and 21st century skills in the Israeli educational system},
	journal = {International Journal of Educational Management},
	volume = {30},
	year = {2016},
	month = {2016/01/01},
	pages = {1231 - 1246},
	publisher = {Emerald Group Publishing Limited},
	abstract = {Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyze two parallel processes in the Israeli educational system: first, the idea of school autonomy, exploring its origins and its pedagogical implications and effectiveness; and second, the development of the progressive education evident mainly in the cognitive domain of twenty-first century skills (21st CS), focussing on fostering {\textquotedblleft}deep knowledge{\textquotedblright} and children{\textquoteright}s thinking skills. The manuscript explores the various {\textquotedblleft}waves{\textquotedblright} of progressive pedagogies that have taken place in the Israeli school system over the years, describing and analyzing the processes that characterize them. Design/methodology/approach Based on a historical perspective, the paper describes chronologically the main developments related to school autonomy and 21st CS policy initiatives, based on a literature review and analysis of policy documents. Findings The review indicates that the Israeli educational system is still caught in the {\textquotedblleft}centralization trap,{\textquotedblright} inhibiting major changes in the patterns of central control and degrees of freedom granted to school-level educators. As for school pedagogy, it is evident that most of the changes in pedagogy suggested by the numerous policy documents over the years have not resulted in sustainable, system-wide change. In both issues a large disparity is evident between declarations about innovative pedagogies and school autonomy and their actual implementation. Originality/value The review reflects the idiosyncratic articulation of policy plans conducted by the Ministry of Education, producing discrepancies and incongruences at the school level. Some implications of the {\textquotedblleft}declarative culture{\textquotedblright} created are further discussed.},
	isbn = {0951-354X},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-11-2015-0149},
	author = {Nir, Adam and Ben-David, Adi and Bogler, Ronit and Inbar, Dan and Zohar, Anat}
}
@article {3128339,
	title = {Reconsidering Personal Epistemology as Metacognition: A Multifaceted Approach to the Analysis of Epistemic Thinking},
	journal = {Educational PsychologistEducational Psychologist},
	volume = {49},
	year = {2014},
	note = {doi: 10.1080/00461520.2013.863265},
	month = {2014},
	pages = {13 - 35},
	publisher = {Routledge},
	abstract = {One of the central unresolved conceptual issues that concerns researchers of personal epistemology is the characterization of the intersection between personal epistemology and metacognition. The contested and diverse nature of both constructs makes untangling their connections a complex yet vital task. The purpose of this article is to advance the discussion regarding this intersection by offering a theoretical approach that may serve as a basis for analyzing epistemic thinking and aligning it with current views of metacognition. Based on a synthesis of theoretical and empirical studies, we argue that epistemic thinking is a multifaceted construct with both cognitive and metacognitive aspects. Furthermore, we propose that epistemic metacognition includes several aspects such as metacognitive skills; metacognitive knowledge about persons, strategies and tasks; and metacognitive experiences. The theoretical, methodological, and instructional implications of this approach are explored.},
	isbn = {0046-1520},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2013.863265},
	author = {Barzilai, Sarit and Zohar, Anat}
}
@article {3128340,
	title = {Challenges in wide scale implementation efforts to foster higher order thinking (HOT) in science education across a whole school system},
	volume = {10},
	year = {2013},
	month = {2013},
	pages = {233 - 249},
	abstract = {This study explores the challenges involved in scaling up projects and in implementing policies across the whole school system in the area of teaching higher order thinking (HOT) in Israeli science classrooms. Eight semi-structured individual interviews were conducted with science education experts who hold leading positions pertaining to learning and instruction on the state level of the following school subjects: elementary and junior- high school science and technology; high-school physics; high school chemistry; and high school biology. Some of the challenges that the interviews revealed are common to many types of educational change processes. The interviews also revealed several challenges which are more specific to the educational endeavor of teaching HOT according to the infusion approach across large numbers of classrooms: challenges involved in weaving HOT into multiple, varied, specific science contents; challenges involved in planning a reasonable and coherent developmental sequence of thinking goals; the fact that content goals tend to have priority over thinking goals and thus to disperse of the latter in policy documents and in implementation processes; and finally, the considerable challenges (pedagogical and organizational) involved in developing educators{\textquoteright} sound and deep professional knowledge in the area of teaching HOT and metacognition on a large, nation-wide scale. The data shows that wide-scale implementation of thinking in Israeli science classrooms often develops as an evolutionary rather than as a revolutionary process. The implications for designing large scale implementation programs aimed at fostering students{\textquoteright} reasoning are discussed.},
	keywords = {From policy to practice, Higher order thinking, Large scale implementation, Teachers{\textquoteright} knowledge, Thinking strategies},
	isbn = {1871-1871},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1871187113000412},
	author = {Zohar, Anat}
}
@article {3128341,
	title = {A review of research on metacognition in science education: current and future directions},
	journal = {Studies in Science EducationStudies in Science Education},
	volume = {49},
	year = {2013},
	note = {doi: 10.1080/03057267.2013.847261},
	month = {2013},
	pages = {121 - 169},
	publisher = {Routledge},
	abstract = {The goal of this study is to map the current state of research in the field of metacognition in science education, to identify key trends, and to discern areas and questions for future research. We conducted a systematic analysis of 178 studies published in peer-reviewed journals in the years 2000?2012 and indexed in the ERIC database. The findings from this analysis indicate that the field of metacognition in science education is in a state of growth and expansion, and that metacognition is increasingly integrated into research addressing the core objectives of science education. In contrast to the findings of previous reviews, conceptual understanding of science was found to be one of the central aims of current metacognition research. The studies employ a wide range of instructional practices for fostering learners? metacognition. The most prominent practice is the use of metacognitive cues and prompts in the course of instruction. Several research gaps are identified: first, the development of learners? metacognitive knowledge is receiving less empirical attention than the development of their metacognitive skills; second, there is a lack of studies that employ controlled research designs that can provide causal evidence regarding the effectiveness of metacognitive instruction for science learning; third, there is an insufficient number of studies of metacognition among young learners in preschool and the early years of elementary school; and fourth, there are very few studies of teachers? knowledge and professional development regarding metacognition. The implications of these research gaps are explored and suggestions for future research are raised.},
	isbn = {0305-7267},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/03057267.2013.847261},
	author = {Zohar, Anat and Barzilai, Sarit}
}
@article {3128344,
	title = {Epistemic Thinking in Action: Evaluating and Integrating Online Sources},
	journal = {Cognition and InstructionCognition and Instruction},
	volume = {30},
	year = {2012},
	note = {doi: 10.1080/07370008.2011.636495},
	month = {2012},
	pages = {39 - 85},
	publisher = {Routledge},
	abstract = {This study examines epistemic thinking in action in order to shed light on the relation between students? personal epistemologies and their online learning practices. The study is based on observations of the learning behaviors of 6th-grade students (n = 38) during two online inquiry tasks. Data were collected through think-aloud protocols and retrospective epistemic interviews. The study examines how absolutist and evaluativist epistemic perspectives come into play in two key online inquiry strategies?evaluation of website trustworthiness and critical integration of multiple online sources. The study explores students? epistemic thinking on the cognitive and metacognitive levels and examines epistemic metacognitive knowledge about both persons and strategies. The findings demonstrate that epistemic thinking plays an important role in online inquiry learning. Participants? epistemic metacognitive knowledge regarding online learning strategies correlated with their epistemic cognition. Evaluativists significantly outperformed absolutists in the integration strategy but no significant differences were found in the evaluation strategy. Furthermore, there was evidence for considerable variability in students? epistemic thinking. The complex role of students? epistemic thinking in online learning is analyzed and discussed.},
	isbn = {0737-0008},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/07370008.2011.636495},
	author = {Barzilai, Sarit and Zohar, Anat}
}
@article {3128350,
	title = {Positioning thinking within national curriculum and assessment systems: Perspectives from Israel, New Zealand and Northern Ireland},
	journal = {New Perspectives on Developing and Assessing Thinking: Selected papers from the 15th International Conference on Thinking},
	volume = {7},
	year = {2012},
	month = {2012},
	pages = {134 - 143},
	abstract = {Over the past decade there has been a major move to position {\textquoteleft}thinking{\textquoteright} (however thinking is defined and enacted) as a more explicit outcome within the curriculum of many nations, with implications for teachers{\textquoteright} professional development, assessment, and examination requirements. This paper analyses approaches to this challenge taken by Israel, New Zealand and Northern Ireland. Each short case study considers: the political context in which the developments emerged; the ways in which thinking has been framed within the national curriculum, assessment and examination system; and the successes and challenges of the approaches taken to embedding change. Comparing and contrasting three different national systems provides important insights into the priorities, commitments and resources allocated to supporting a focus on thinking as a valued curriculum goal and outcome. In particular, it highlights the need for greater coherence between curriculum, professional development, pedagogy and assessment policies generally. Given the increasing international emphasis on the importance of developing critical thinking and problem-solving skills as a response to 21st century learning challenges, the paper reflects on what more may need to be done to leverage and sustain change.},
	keywords = {Assessment policy, Curriculum implementation, Curriculum policy, International comparison, Teaching thinking},
	isbn = {1871-1871},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1871187112000284},
	author = {Gallagher, Carmel and Hipkins, Rosemary and Zohar, Anat}
}
@article {3128347,
	title = {Contribution of Meta-strategic Knowledge to Scientific Inquiry Learning},
	journal = {International Journal of Science EducationInternational Journal of Science Education},
	volume = {31},
	year = {2009},
	note = {doi: 10.1080/09500690802162762},
	month = {2009},
	pages = {1657 - 1682},
	publisher = {Routledge},
	abstract = {The aim of the present study is to explore the effects of Meta?strategic Knowledge (MSK) on scientific inquiry learning. MSK is a subcomponent of metacognition defined as general, explicit knowledge about thinking strategies. Following earlier studies that showed considerable effects of explicit instruction of MSK regarding the strategy of variables control, the present study explores whether similar effects are found in two additional scientific thinking strategies: Define Research Questions and Formulate Research Hypotheses. Participants were 119 eighth?grade students from six classes of a heterogeneous school. Equal numbers of low?achieving and high?achieving students were randomly assigned into experimental and control groups. The findings showed dramatic developments in students? performance following instruction. The effect of the treatment was preserved in a delayed transfer test. Our findings show that explicit teaching of MSK had a stronger effect for low?achieving students than for high?achieving students. The implications of the findings for teaching and learning in the context of scientific inquiry are discussed.},
	isbn = {0950-0693},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690802162762},
	author = {Ben-David, Adi and Zohar, Anat}
}
@article {3128346,
	title = {Paving a clear path in a thick forest: a conceptual analysis of a metacognitive component},
	volume = {4},
	year = {2009},
	month = {2009},
	pages = {177 - 195},
	abstract = {The concept of metacognition refers to one{\textquoteright}s knowledge and control of one{\textquoteright}s own cognitive system. However, despite being widely used, this concept is confusing because of several reasons. First, sometimes it is not at all clear what is cognitive and what is metacognitive. Second, researchers often use the same term, namely, {\textquotedblleft}metacognition{\textquotedblright} even when they refer to very different aspects of this complex concept. Alternatively, researchers may use different terms to indicate the same metacognitive elements. Another foggy matter is the interrelationships among the various components of metacognition discussed in the literature. This conceptual confusion regarding the concept of metacognition and its sub-components calls for in-depth theoretical and conceptual clarifications. The goal of this article is to portray a detailed example of a conceptual analysis of meta-strategic knowledge (MSK) which is one specific component of metacognition. This specific example is used to draw a general model for conceptual analyses of additional metacognitive components. The approach suggested here is to begin with a clear definition of the target sub component of metacognition, followed by a systematic examination of this sub component according to several dimensions that are relevant to metacognition in general and to that sub component in particular. The examination should include an analysis of how the details of the definition of the target sub-component refer to: (a) general theoretical metacognitive issues raised by prominent scholars; (b) definitions formulated and issues raised by other researchers who have investigated the same (or a similar) sub-component and, (c) empirical findings pertaining to that sub-component. Finally, it should be noted that since metacognition is a relational rather than a definite concept it is important to situate the context within which the conceptual analysis takes place.},
	isbn = {1556-1631},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-009-9044-6},
	author = {Zohar, Anat and Ben David, Adi}
}
@article {3128349,
	title = {The effects of explicit teaching of metastrategic knowledge on low- and high-achieving students},
	volume = {18},
	year = {2008},
	month = {2008},
	pages = {337 - 353},
	abstract = {This study assessed the effects of explicit teaching of metastrategic knowledge (MSK) on gains of low-achieving (LA) and high-achieving (HA) 5th grade students (N=41). Gains in reasoning scores of students from the Experimental group (compared to students from the control group) were obtained on the strategic and on the metastrategic level. Gains were preserved in near and far transfer tasks immediately after the end of instruction and 3 months later. Explicit teaching of MSK affected both LA and HA students, but it was extremely valuable for LA students who required a longer period than HA students to reach their top score.},
	keywords = {Control of variables, Metacognition, Metastrategic knowledge, Teaching of strategies, Thinking strategies},
	isbn = {0959-4752},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959475207000862},
	author = {Zohar, Anat and Peled, Bracha}
}
@article {3128352,
	title = {Explicit teaching of meta-strategic knowledge in authentic classroom situations},
	volume = {3},
	year = {2008},
	month = {2008},
	pages = {59 - 82},
	abstract = {Meta-strategic Knowledge (MSK) is a sub-component of metacognition that is defined in the present study as general, explicit knowledge about thinking strategies. In the present study we shall focus on the control of variables thinking strategy. Following an earlier study (Zohar \& Peled 2007) that showed considerable effects of explicit instruction of MSK in laboratory setting, this study explores whether these effects are preserved in authentic classroom situations. Participants were 119 8th grade students from 6 classes of a heterogeneous school. Equal numbers of low-achieving and high-achieving students were randomly assigned into experimental and control groups. The findings showed dramatic developments in students{\textquoteright} strategic and meta-strategic thinking following instruction. The effect of the treatment was preserved in delayed transfer tests. Our findings show that explicit teaching of MSK had a strong effect on low achieving students. The implications of the findings for learning and instruction are discussed.},
	isbn = {1556-1631},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-007-9019-4},
	author = {Zohar, Anat and Ben David, Adi}
}
@article {3128348,
	title = {Gender and Performance in Mathematical Tasks: Does the Context Make a Difference?},
	volume = {6},
	year = {2008},
	month = {2008},
	pages = {677 - 693},
	abstract = {This study investigates how the context of mathematical tasks affects the performance of young children (ages 5{\textendash}11). Subjects were 523 children from age 5 to 11. Three contexts of mathematical tasks (stereotypically boys{\textquoteright} contexts, stereotypically girls{\textquoteright} contexts and neutral contexts) are examined in three age groups (young, medium, and old). Boys{\textquoteright} and girls{\textquoteright} mean scores were compared for each age group in each of the three contexts. The data show that girls{\textquoteright} performance is affected by the context of the task while boys{\textquoteright} performance is not. The comparison between boys and girls in the three different contexts showed that in neutral contexts, the scores of boys and girls are similar. In (stereotypically) boys{\textquoteright} contexts, however, boys score significantly higher than girls. In (stereotypically) girls{\textquoteright} contexts, a significant interaction is found between age and gender, showing that the way girls are affected by such contexts depends on their age. The implications of these findings for gender-fair mathematics learning are discussed.},
	isbn = {1573-1774},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-007-9086-7},
	author = {Zohar, Anat and Gershikov, Anna}
}
@article {3128353,
	title = {Is information acquisition still important in the information age?},
	volume = {13},
	year = {2008},
	month = {2008},
	pages = {35 - 53},
	abstract = {How should the information age affect teaching goals and methods? One of the claims voiced by educators is that computerized information tools make systematic study and acquisition of information redundant. Put bluntly this claim states that students should no longer {\textquoteleft}waste{\textquoteright} their time learning or memorizing texts and facts that can be retrieved in a keystroke. We attempted to examine the current role of information acquisition in learning processes by interviewing 24 expert academic researchers who work regularly with computerized information tools. Analysis of the researchers{\textquoteright} descriptions of their learning and thinking processes revealed that, according to the majority of the researchers, computerized information tools have not reduced the importance learning and acquiring information. These exploratory findings suggest that information acquisition should still be an important part of the curriculum in the age of information.},
	isbn = {1573-7608},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-007-9046-4},
	author = {Barzilai, Sarit and Zohar, Anat}
}
@article {3128351,
	title = {Teaching thinking on a national scale: Israel{\textquoteright}s pedagogical horizons},
	volume = {3},
	year = {2008},
	month = {2008},
	pages = {77 - 81},
	abstract = {Like other countries, Israel had its share of projects that see the implementation of inquiry and higher order thinking in schools as their main goal. However, although many of these projects were quite successful, they did not succeed in changing the bulk of teaching and learning in Israeli schools. This article describes a new national educational policy called {\textquotedblleft}Pedagogical Horizons for Learning{\textquotedblright}. The goal of this policy is to move the whole educational system towards a focus on higher order thinking and deep understanding. Such a move must consider the knowledge gained from previous projects but it must also lean on strategies for implementing systemic educational change. Implementing the goals of the {\textquotedblleft}Pedagogical Horizons for Learning{\textquotedblright} on a national scale requires simultaneous work on three-dimensions: (a) curriculum, learning materials and standards; (b) professional development; and (c) assessment. The article outlines the plan for each of these three-dimensions and provides some accounts of the first stages of the implementation process.},
	keywords = {Assessment of thinking, National thinking curriculum, Professional development for teaching thinking, Teaching thinking},
	isbn = {1871-1871},
	url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1871187108000060},
	author = {Zohar, Anat}
}
@article {144862,
	title = {Connected knowledge in science and mathematics education},
	journal = {International Journal of Science Education},
	volume = {23},
	year = {2006},
	pages = {1579-1600},
	abstract = {While the traditional meaning of connected knowledge is valuable in some school subjects, it does not address the main activities of knowledge acquisition in subjects such as physics and mathematics. The goal of this article is to analyze the relationships between the concepts {\textquotedblleft}learning for understanding{\textquotedblright} and {\textquotedblleft}connected knowledge{\textquotedblright}, a central theme in feminist epistemology. In learning for understanding, the learner forms multiple, intricate connections among the concepts she is studying in school, between school concepts and her everyday concepts, and between school concepts and their wider context. Viewing connected knowledge as tightly related to understanding has several important implications. It brings connected knowledge into the central learning activities that take place in school science and mathematics, and gives it a high status. It contributes to our understanding of gender-related patterns in thinking; and it may form a unifying theoretical framework for many studies and projects in the field of gender fair education.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690500439199},
	author = {Zohar A.,}
}
@article {144861,
	title = {Higher order thinking in science classrooms: goals, means and research findings},
	journal = {Ensecanza de las Ciencias},
	volume = {24},
	year = {2006},
	pages = {157-172},
	author = {Zohar A.,}
}
@article {144863,
	title = {How does Information Technology shape thinking?},
	journal = {Thinking Skills and Creativity},
	volume = {1},
	year = {2006},
	pages = {130-145},
	abstract = {This study revisits a classic yet still intriguing question regarding information technology (IT): what difference does IT {\textquotedblleft}really{\textquotedblright} make, in terms of people{\textquoteright}s thinking? In order to explore this question, the effects of IT in authentic research settings were studied through retrospective interviews with 24 academic researchers. Analysis of the researchers{\textquoteright} descriptions of their learning and thinking processes shows that the effects of IT on higher order thinking strategies can be classified, following Perkins [Perkins, D. N. (1985). The fingertip effect: How information processing technology changes thinking.\&nbsp;Educational Researcher, 14(7), 11{\textendash}17], into first order effects and second order effects. First order effects of IT amplify or improve existing thinking strategies, without changing their nature, while second order effects of IT cause significant changes in the researchers{\textquoteright} thinking strategies. The results demonstrate that both types of effects take place in authentic research settings, often existing side by side. This article explores several examples of the ways in which IT affects higher order thinking strategies (such as forming research questions, constructing models and evaluating information), examines the types of effects created by IT, the conditions required for these effects to take place, and the role of distributed cognition.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2006.08.001},
	author = {Barzilai S. and Zohar A.,}
}
@article {144850,
	title = {The nature and development of teachers\&$\#$39; meta-strategic knowledge in the context of teaching higher order thinking},
	journal = {Journal of the Learning Sciences},
	volume = {15},
	year = {2006},
	pages = {331-377},
	abstract = {This study examines the development of teachers{\textquoteright} metastrategic knowledge (MSK), a component of metacognitive knowledge, in the context of higher order thinking. Participants were 14 junior high school and high school science teachers who attended a professional development course. Data collection was carried out by triangulation of several data sources: classroom observations, individual interviews, written assignments, and recordings of discussions that took place during the course. The Findings section provides a detailed analysis of the professional development of 2 teachers, as well as an analysis of the development of the 14 teachers as a group. The data provide evidence for the types of knowledge teachers need for applying MSK in the course of instruction, the most specific of which are MSK of thinking skills (that must be explicit) and pedagogical knowledge regarding MSK. The considerable overall development in teachers{\textquoteright} MSK following an in-service course consisted of at least 3 different patterns of development: (a) learning MSK regarding new thinking skills, (b) transforming initially implicit metalevel knowledge into explicit metalevel knowledge, and (c) introducing changes in the class culture to value new forms of discourse regarding thinking. The implications for professional development courses in this field are discussed.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls1503_2},
	author = {Zohar A.,}
}
@article {3128356,
	title = {Assessing Teachers{\textquoteright} Pedagogical Knowledge in the Context of Teaching Higher-order Thinking},
	journal = {International Journal of Science EducationInternational Journal of Science Education},
	volume = {27},
	year = {2005},
	note = {doi: 10.1080/09500690500186592},
	month = {2005},
	pages = {1595 - 1620},
	publisher = {Routledge},
	abstract = {This article reports the development and application of two instruments for assessing science teachers? pedagogical knowledge in the context of teaching higher?order thinking: a Likert?type research instrument, and an instrument that analyzes classroom observations. The rationale for developing these instruments and their main categories is described. One hundred and fifty Israeli science teachers replied to the Likert?type questionnaire. Results show that biology teachers gained a significantly higher score than either physics or chemistry teachers, that junior high school teachers scored significantly higher than high school teachers, and that a significant negative correlation was found between final scores and teaching experience. Participants in the classroom observation study were 14 teachers who attended a one?year professional development course for teaching higher?order thinking. The instrument was sensitive in detecting progress in teachers? pedagogical knowledge in several categories, such as: Frequency of tasks that required higher?order thinking; The variety of thinking strategies that teachers addressed during their lessons; Engagement of students in metacognitive thinking; and Using the ?language of thinking? in class. The implications of the findings for research and practice are described.},
	isbn = {0950-0693},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690500186592},
	author = {Zohar, Anat and Schwartzer, Noa}
}
@article {144844,
	title = {Exploring the effects of cognitive conflict and direct teaching for students of different academic level},
	journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
	volume = {42},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {829-855},
	abstract = {Despite inconclusive evidence regarding the effectiveness of cognitive conflict, educators still consider it a significant instructional strategy. One of the challenges of current research is to study the conditions under which cognitive conflict is effective. This research examines the notion that cognitive conflict may have dissimilar effects for students of different academic levels. The study compares the effectiveness of teaching the control of variables thinking strategy to students of two academic levels (low vs. high) by two different teaching methods [inducing a cognitive conflict (ICC) vs. direct teaching (DT)]. One hundred twenty-one students who learned in a heterogeneous school were divided into four experimental groups in a 2 {\texttimes} 2 design. Results show no main effect of teaching method but do show a significant interaction effect between level of students and teaching method. The findings show that students with high academic achievements benefited from the ICC teaching method while the DT method hindered their progress. In contrast, students with low academic achievements benefited from the DT method while the ICC teaching method hindered their progress. The interaction effect was preserved in a retention test that took place 6 months after instruction. The findings show that previous inconclusive findings regarding the effectiveness of the ICC method can be explained by its contradictory effects on students of different academic levels.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20075},
	author = {Zohar A., and Aharon-Kravetsky S.}
}
@article {144843,
	title = {Physics Teachers\&$\#$39; knowledge and beliefs regarding girls\&$\#$39; low participation rates in advanced physics classes},
	journal = {International Journal of Science Education},
	volume = {27},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {61-78},
	abstract = {Low participation rates of girls in advanced physics classes are a serious problem in many countries. Assuming that physics teachers can affect girls{\textquoteright} choice to elect advanced physics classes, and that teachers{\textquoteright} behaviors are affected by their knowledge and beliefs, the goal of this study was to investigate physics{\textquoteright} teachers{\textquoteright} knowledge and beliefs regarding girls{\textquoteright} low participation rates in physics. Interviews were conducted with 25 physics teacher who taught in 25 different high schools in an urban area in Israel. The findings show that: approximately one-half of the teachers underestimate the severity of the problem; almost two-thirds of the teachers do not see it as a problem that requires any action; and most teachers do not know what can be done to encourage girls to elect physics and to create a more gender inclusive physics learning environment. The implications for physics teacher education are discussed.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069032000138798},
	author = {Zohar A., and Bronstein B.}
}
@article {144842,
	title = {Elements of pedagogical knowledge in the context of teaching higher order thinking},
	journal = {Journal of Science Teacher Education},
	volume = {15},
	year = {2004},
	pages = {293-312},
	author = {Zohar A.,}
}
@article {3128357,
	title = {Elements of Teachers{\textquoteright} Pedagogical Knowledge Regarding Instruction of Higher Order Thinking},
	volume = {15},
	year = {2004},
	month = {2004},
	pages = {293 - 312},
	abstract = {This study investigated elements of pedagogical knowledge when students{\textquoteright} higher order thinking was an explicit and focused instructional goal. The findings suggest a model that consists of 6 elements. It seems that, for all these elements, the source of differences between teachers{\textquoteright} various pedagogies may be tracked to the basic distinction between a traditional transmission-of-knowledge approach to instruction versus a reform oriented constructivist approach. The findings portray how these two pedagogies are played out when higher order thinking is viewed as a distinct educational goal. Appropriate activities are insufficient for students{\textquoteright} active thinking. In the absence of adequate pedagogies, teachers adopt algorithmic approaches for teaching thinking that decrease the cognitive demands of tasks. Practical recommendations are discussed.},
	isbn = {1573-1847},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JSTE.0000048332.39591.e3},
	author = {Zohar, Anat}
}
@article {3128358,
	title = {Her physics, his physics: Gender issues in Israeli advanced placement physics classes},
	journal = {International Journal of Science EducationInternational Journal of Science Education},
	volume = {25},
	year = {2003},
	note = {doi: 10.1080/09500690210126766},
	month = {2003},
	pages = {245 - 268},
	publisher = {Routledge},
	abstract = {Gender gaps in physics in favour of boys are more prominent in Israel than in other countries. The main research question is to find out what gender issues are at play in Israeli advanced placement physics classes. Matriculation exam scores from approximately 400 high schools were analysed across 12 years. In addition, semi-constructed interviews were conducted with 50 advanced placement physics students (25 girls and 25 boys). In terms of participation, it was found that the ratio of girls to boys has been unchanged from 1988 to 2000 and is roughly 1:3. In terms of performance, it was found that the final matriculation scores of boys and girls are similar. However, breaking up the final scores into its two components - teachers{\textquoteright} given grades and matriculation test scores - showed that boy{\textquoteright}s test scores are usually higher than girls{\textquoteright} test scores, while girls{\textquoteright} teachers{\textquoteright} given grades are usually higher than boys{\textquoteright}. Results from semi-constructed interviews pointed to two factors that are especially unfavourable to many girls: excessive competitiveness and lack of teaching for understanding. Girls{\textquoteright} yearning for deep understanding is seen as a form of questing for connected knowledge. It is suggested that instructional methods that foster students{\textquoteright} understanding while decreasing competitiveness in physics classes might contribute to girls{\textquoteright} participation and performance in advanced physics classes while also supporting the learning of many boys.},
	isbn = {0950-0693},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690210126766},
	author = {Zohar, Anat and Sela, David}
}
@article {144841,
	title = {Higher Order Thinking Skills and Low Achieving Students: Are they Mutually Exclusive?},
	journal = {Journal of the Learning Sciences},
	volume = {12},
	year = {2003},
	pages = {145-182},
	abstract = {Fostering students{\textquoteright} higher order thinking skills is considered an important educational goal. Although learning theories see the development of students{\textquoteright} thinking as an important goal for all students, teachers often believe that stimulating higher order thinking is appropriate only for high-achieving students. According to this view, low-achieving students are, by and large, unable to deal with tasks that require higher order thinking skills and should thus be spared the frustration generated by such tasks. Because this view may cause teachers to treat students in a nonegalitarian way, it is important to find out whether or not it is supported by empirical evidence. The goal of this study is to examine this issue in light of four different studies, by asking the following question: Do low-achieving students gain from teaching and learning processes that are designed to foster higher order thinking skills? Each of the4 studies addressed a different project whose goal was to teach higher order thinking in science classrooms. Following a brief general description of each project, we provide an analysis of its effects on students with low and high achievements. The findings show that by the end of each of the 4 programs, students with high academic achievements gained higher thinking scores than their peers with low academic achievements. However, students of both subgroups made considerable progress with respect to their initial score. In one of the 4 studies the net gain of low achievers was significantly higher than for high achievers. Our findings strongly suggest that teachers should encourage students of all academic levels to engage in tasks that involve higher order thinking skills.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327809JLS1202_1},
	author = {Zohar A., and Dori Y. J.}
}
@article {103178,
	title = {Fostering students\&$\#$39; knowledge and argumentation skills through dilemmas in human genetics},
	journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
	volume = {39},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {35-62},
	abstract = {This study examined the outcomes of a unit that integrates explicit teaching of general reasoning patterns into the teaching of a specific science content. Specifically, this article examined the teaching of argumentation skills in the context of dilemmas in human genetics. Before instruction only a minority (16.2\%) of the students referred to correct, specific biological knowledge in constructing arguments in the context of dilemmas in genetics. Approximately 90\% of the students were successful in formulating simple arguments. An assessment that took place following instruction supported the conclusion that integrating explicit teaching of argumentation into the teaching of dilemmas in human genetics enhances performance in both biological knowledge and argumentation. An increase was found in the frequency of students who referred to correct, specific biological knowledge in constructing arguments. Students in the experimental group scored significantly higher than students in the comparison group in a test of genetics knowledge. An increase was also found in the quality of students{\textquoteright} argumentation. Students were able to transfer the reasoning abilities taught in the context of genetics to the context of dilemmas taken from everyday life. The effects of metacognitive thinking and of changing students{\textquoteright} thinking dispositions by modifying what is considered valuable in the class culture are discussed. {\textcopyright} 2002 John Wiley \&amp; Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 39: 35{\textendash}62, 2002},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.10008},
	author = {Zohar A.,}
}
@article {144840,
	title = {Her physics, his physics: gender issues in Israeli advanced placement physics classes},
	journal = {International Journal of Science Education},
	volume = {25},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {245-268},
	abstract = {Gender gaps in physics in favour of boys are more prominent in Israel than in other countries. The main research question is to find out what gender issues are at play in Israeli advanced placement physics classes. Matriculation exam scores from approximately 400 high schools were analysed across 12 years. In addition, semi-constructed interviews were conducted with 50 advanced placement physics students (25 girls and 25 boys). In terms of participation, it was found that the ratio of girls to boys has been unchanged from 1988 to 2000 and is roughly 1:3. In terms of performance, it was found that the final matriculation scores of boys and girls are similar. However, breaking up the final scores into its two components - teachers{\textquoteright} given grades and matriculation test scores - showed that boy{\textquoteright}s test scores are usually higher than girls{\textquoteright} test scores, while girls{\textquoteright} teachers{\textquoteright} given grades are usually higher than boys{\textquoteright}. Results from semi-constructed interviews pointed to two factors that are especially unfavourable to many girls: excessive competitiveness and lack of teaching for understanding. Girls{\textquoteright} yearning for deep understanding is seen as a form of questing for connected knowledge. It is suggested that instructional methods that foster students{\textquoteright} understanding while decreasing competitiveness in physics classes might contribute to girls{\textquoteright} participation and performance in advanced physics classes while also supporting the learning of many boys.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/09500690210126766},
	author = {Zohar A., and Sela D.}
}
@article {103179,
	title = {Teachers\&$\#$39; pedagogical knowledge and instruction of higher order thinking},
	journal = {Megamot},
	volume = {42},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {3-28},
	abstract = {The goal of this article is to expose teachers{\textquoteright} knowledge in the context of the special challenges they face when teaching higher order thinking. The study rationale is that understanding teachers{\textquoteright} knowledge is a prerequisite for designing effective teacher training programs. The study addressed 2 questions: (1) How well do teachers understand their students{\textquoteright} reasoning difficulties? and (2) What do teachers know pedagogically regarding these difficulties? Subjects were 37-83 junior high and high school science teachers. Data was collected during in-service professional development courses using four different methods: audio taping course discussion; work sheets that teachers wrote during the courses; self-report questionnaires in which teachers described lessons they had taught in their own classrooms; and reflective analysis of classroom instruction. The findings show that teachers are proficient in diagnosing students{\textquoteright} thinking difficulties and that they often apply a "transmission of knowledge" pedagogy even when teaching higher order thinking. The consequence of this pedagogy is a decrease in the cognitive level of tasks, which reduces students{\textquoteright} opportunities to engage in active thinking. Teachers{\textquoteright} reflective analysis of classroom instruction revealed several successful and non-successful patterns for treating students{\textquoteright} cognitive difficulties. Implications of the findings for teachers{\textquoteright} professional development are discussed.\&nbsp;\&nbsp;},
	url = {https://www.jstor.org/stable/23657966},
	author = {Zohar A.,}
}
@article {103177,
	title = {Teachers\&rsquo; beliefs about low-achieving students and higher order thinking},
	journal = {Teaching and Teachers{\textquoteright} Education},
	volume = {17},
	year = {2001},
	pages = {469-485},
	abstract = {The goal of this study is to characterize the patterns of teachers{\textquoteright} beliefs regarding low-achieving students and instruction of higher order thinking. Subjects are 40 Israeli teachers. Results show that 45\% of the teachers believe that higher order thinking is inappropriate for low-achieving students. Findings suggest that teachers{\textquoteright} beliefs in this context are related to their general theory of instruction: viewing learning as hierarchical in terms of students{\textquoteright} academic level was found to be related to a traditional view of learning, i.e., seeing learning as progressing from simple, lower order cognitive skills to more complex ones. Implications for teacher education are discussed.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742-051X(01)00007-5},
	author = {Zohar A., and Vaaknin E. and Degani A.}
}
@article {103175,
	title = {Teachers\&rsquo; metacognitive knowledge and the instruction of higher order thinking},
	journal = {Teaching and Teachers{\textquoteright} Education},
	volume = {15},
	year = {1999},
	pages = {413-429},
	abstract = {The purpose of the present study was to investigate teachers{\textquoteright} declarative metacognitive knowledge of higher order thinking skills. This was a qualitative study conducted within the educational setting of in-service science teachers{\textquoteright} courses. The main finding is that teachers{\textquoteright} intuitive (i.e., pre-instructional) knowledge of metacognition of thinking skills is unsatisfactory for the purpose of teaching higher order thinking in science classrooms. A general practical implication of this study is that courses which prepare teachers for instruction of higher order thinking should address extensively the issue of metacognition of thinking skills.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742-051X(98)00063-8},
	author = {Zohar A.,}
}
@article {102816,
	title = {Anthropomorphic and teleological explanations: do they depend on age and /or biological training?},
	journal = {International Journal of Science Education},
	volume = {15},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {439-443},
	abstract = {Teleological and anthropomorphic explanations are considered illegitimate by many biology educators. This article is a position paper advocating the removal of the taboo regarding anthropomorphism and teleology in biology education. This position is defended by several arguments: (a) Regardless of science educators{\textquoteright} position in this issue, children will continue to encounter endless teleological/anthropomorphic formulations in popular science movies and books. (b) A review of philosophers{\textquoteright} and biologists{\textquoteright} ideas shows that there is definitely no consensus on a universal rejection of teleological formulations and explanations. (c) The results of an empirical cognitive study show that, for high school students, the acceptance of anthropomorphic or teleological formulations does not necessarily imply anthropomorphic or teleological reasoning. (d) Results from an empirical field study designed to assess the influence of a textbook with numerous teleological/anthropomorphic formulations on biology students indicate that the use of such a book is not followed by an increase in students{\textquoteright} application of teleological/anthropomorphic formulations or explanations. Students{\textquoteright} reflections upon their own learning processes testify that teleological/anthropomorphic formulations have heuristic value. Practical implications for biology education are discussed. {\textcopyright} 1998 John Wiley \&amp; Sons, Inc.\&nbsp;Sci Ed\&nbsp;82:679{\textendash}697, 1998.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199811)82:6<679::AID-SCE3>3.0.CO;2-E},
	author = {Friedler Y. and Zohar A., and Tamir P.}
}
@article {102816,
	title = {Anthropomorphic and teleological explanations: do they depend on age and /or biological training? },
	journal = {International Journal of Science Education},
	volume = {15},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {439-443},
	abstract = {Teleological and anthropomorphic explanations are considered illegitimate by many biology educators. This article is a position paper advocating the removal of the taboo regarding anthropomorphism and teleology in biology education. This position is defended by several arguments: (a) Regardless of science educators{\textquoteright} position in this issue, children will continue to encounter endless teleological/anthropomorphic formulations in popular science movies and books. (b) A review of philosophers{\textquoteright} and biologists{\textquoteright} ideas shows that there is definitely no consensus on a universal rejection of teleological formulations and explanations. (c) The results of an empirical cognitive study show that, for high school students, the acceptance of anthropomorphic or teleological formulations does not necessarily imply anthropomorphic or teleological reasoning. (d) Results from an empirical field study designed to assess the influence of a textbook with numerous teleological/anthropomorphic formulations on biology students indicate that the use of such a book is not followed by an increase in students{\textquoteright} application of teleological/anthropomorphic formulations or explanations. Students{\textquoteright} reflections upon their own learning processes testify that teleological/anthropomorphic formulations have heuristic value. Practical implications for biology education are discussed. {\textcopyright} 1998 John Wiley \&amp; Sons, Inc.\&nbsp;<i>Sci Ed</i>\&nbsp;82:679{\textendash}697, 1998.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199811)82:6<679::AID-SCE3>3.0.CO;2-E},
	author = {Friedler Y. and Zohar A., and Tamir P.}
}
@article {103168,
	title = {Assessing the cognitive demands required of students in class discourse, homework assignments and tests},
	journal = {International Journal of Science Education},
	volume = {20},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {769-782},
	abstract = {An important question which is often overlooked addresses the nature and quantity of higher-order thinking activities when teachers are not explicitly {\textquoteleft}teaching for thinking{\textquoteright} but rather acting and behaving routinely. This study investigates the scope and nature of tasks demanding students{\textquoteright} application of higher-order thinking skills while studying biology in junior and senior high schools in Israel. The method used is the collection and analysis of questions asked by teachers during classroom discourse, in homework assignments and in tests. The main findings show: (a) that the frequency of higher-order thinking questions in biology class discourse in Israel is approximately 20\%; (b) that the cognitive level of teachers{\textquoteright} questioning in HS is higher than in JHS; (c) that the matriculation exam has a strong influence on tests given by teachers; and (d) that while inquiry questions permeated HS testing they are less salient in HS class discourse, indicating the need for remedial treatment which should include the integration of more inquiry-oriented pedagogies into classroom practice. \&nbsp;},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069980200702},
	author = {Zohar A., and Schwartzer N. and Tamir P.}
}
@article {103171,
	title = {Lifting the taboo regarding teleology and anthropomorphism in biology education\&mdash;Heretical suggestions},
	journal = {Science Education},
	volume = {82},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {679-697},
	abstract = {Teleological and anthropomorphic explanations are considered illegitimate by many biology educators. This article is a position paper advocating the removal of the taboo regarding anthropomorphism and teleology in biology education. This position is defended by several arguments: (a) Regardless of science educators{\textquoteright} position in this issue, children will continue to encounter endless teleological/anthropomorphic formulations in popular science movies and books. (b) A review of philosophers{\textquoteright} and biologists{\textquoteright} ideas shows that there is definitely no consensus on a universal rejection of teleological formulations and explanations. (c) The results of an empirical cognitive study show that, for high school students, the acceptance of anthropomorphic or teleological formulations does not necessarily imply anthropomorphic or teleological reasoning. (d) Results from an empirical field study designed to assess the influence of a textbook with numerous teleological/anthropomorphic formulations on biology students indicate that the use of such a book is not followed by an increase in students{\textquoteright} application of teleological/anthropomorphic formulations or explanations. Students{\textquoteright} reflections upon their own learning processes testify that teleological/anthropomorphic formulations have heuristic value. Practical implications for biology education are discussed. {\textcopyright} 1998 John Wiley \&amp; Sons, Inc.\&nbsp;Sci Ed\&nbsp;82:679{\textendash}697, 1998.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199811)82:6<679::AID-SCE3>3.0.CO;2-E},
	author = {Zohar A.,}
}
@article {103167,
	title = {Result or conclusion? Students\&$\#$39; differentiation between experimental results and conclusions},
	journal = {Journal of Biological Education},
	volume = {32},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {53-59},
	abstract = {Science curricula often require students to collect, record, and describe experimental observations and results, as well as to draw conclusions. The first purpose of this study is to document and analyze students{\textquoteright} performance regarding the differentiation between results and conclusions, while they are engaged in scientific investigations within biology classrooms. The second purpose is to describe and analyze teachers{\textquoteright} thinking regarding this issue. The findings show that while learning biology in school, students often have difficulties in differentiating between experimental results and conclusions. Although teachers were highly aware of their students{\textquoteright} difficulties and held a rich set of ideas about the sources of those difficulties, the instructional means they used were insufficient. Two hypotheses are suggested as the source of students{\textquoteright} difficulties. Further research is needed to investigate those hypotheses and to formulate recommendations for improved instructional means.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.1998.9655594},
	author = {Zohar A.,}
}
@article {102820,
	title = {
	Transfer and retention of reasoning skills taught in biological contexts

},
	journal = {Research in Science and Technological Education},
	volume = {14},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {205-219},
	abstract = {<p style="text-align: justify;">
	In the {\textquoteleft}Thinking in Science Classrooms{\textquoteright} project the regular biology curriculum is supplemented by learning activities designed to enhance specific thinking skills. Learning environments are designed under the assumption that teaching for higher order thinking skills requires a structured instructional sequence, focusing on inducing strategic change. A constructivist framework suggests that inducing such a change should include learning environments which are designed to challenge students{\textquoteright} initial non-scientific reasoning strategies. The learning environment described in the present article is designed to create a cognitive conflict with students{\textquoteright} initial strategies. The findings from this study show that when students in eighth and ninth grade first encounter problems such as those described here, most of them do not use accurate scientific reasoning strategies. Interaction with the learning environment increased the rate of students{\textquoteright} valid inferences from 11\% to 77\%. Students were able to transfer their newly acquired reasoning strategies to a new problem taken from a new biological topic. They were also able to retain their newly acquired strategies across time, and to transfer them to yet another biological topic 5 months after instruction took place.
</p>
},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/0263514960140207},
	author = {Zohar A.,}
}
@article {102819,
	title = {Reasoning about interactions between variables},
	journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
	volume = {32},
	year = {1995},
	pages = {1039-1063},
	abstract = {Thinking about interactions between variables is a necessary condition for accurate scientific thinking. The purpose of this study was to investigate difficulties in thinking about interactions between variables and to suggest remedial educational means. A conceptual analysis distinguishes between valid interaction inferences, invalid interaction inferences, and limited inferences which can be seen as a partial or a primitive interaction inference. Empirical findings show that expert thinkers demonstrate thinking about interactions at both an operational and a metastrategic level. Some lay-adults however, although able to draw many limited inferences, encounter substantial difficulties in drawing valid interaction inferences while engaged in an investigation of a scientific sort. Four types of difficulties were identified in this study: lack of a {\textquotedblleft}double set of controlled comparisons{\textquotedblright} strategy that is necessary for valid inferences about interacting variables; lack of the conceptual framework for interacting factors; diversion of attention to other features; and difficulty in maintaining the necessary control of other variables. The implications of the findings to science curriculum are discussed.},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660321005},
	author = {Zohar A.,}
}
@article {102823,
	title = {Strategies of Knowledge Acquisition},
	journal = {Monographs of the Society for Research in Child   Development (MSRCD)},
	volume = {60},
	year = {1995},
	pages = {1-128},
	abstract = {<p style="text-align: justify;">
	In this Monograph, knowledge acquisition is examined as a process involving the coordination of existing theories with new evidence. Although researchers studying conceptual change have described children{\textquoteright}s evolving theories within numerous domains, relatively little attention has been given to the mechanisms by means of which theories are formed and revised and knowledge is thereby acquired. Central to the present work is the claim that strategies of knowledge acquisition may vary significantly across (as well as within) individuals and can be conceptualized within a developmental framework. To study these strategies and their development, we use a microgenetic method. Our application of the method allows extended observation of the acquisition of knowledge within a domain, of the strategies used to acquire this knowledge, and of the change in these strategies over time. The method also allows qualitative analysis of individuals and quantitative analysis of groups to be used in complementary ways. Knowledge acquisition processes were examined at two age levels. Community college adults and preadolescents participated in two 30-45-min individual sessions each week over a 10-week period. Subjects worked on problems involving a broad range of content from both physical and social domains. A transfer design was situated within this microgenetic framework, for the purpose of assessing generality of strategies with the introduction of new content. Subjects of both ages showed progress across the 10 weeks in the level of strategies used as well as similarity in the form that this progress took. Despite initial performance levels that did not vary greatly, children showed less strategic improvement than adults and inferior knowledge acquisition. Strategic progress was maintained by both groups when new problem content was introduced midway through the sessions. The results thus indicate significant generality of strategies and strategy change across content, as well as populations. A further indication of generality was the emergence of new strategies at about the same time in the social and physical domains, even though performance in the social domain overall lagged behind that in the physical domain. At the individual level, mixed usage of valid and invalid strategies was the norm. This finding in an adult population suggests that this variability is a more general characteristic of human performance, rather than one unique to states of developmental transition. Another broad implication of this variability is that single-occasion assessment may provide an at best incomplete, and often misleading, characterization of an individual{\textquoteright}s approach. Still another implication is that at least part of variability in performance across content resides in the subject, rather than exclusively in the task. That superior strategies present in an individual{\textquoteright}s repertory are not always applied highlights the fact that more is involved in competent performance than the ability to execute effective strategies. Metastrategic competence-the ability to reflect on and manage strategic knowledge-and metacognitive competence-the ability to reflect on the content of one{\textquoteright}s knowledge-are emphasized as critical components of cognitive development. These competencies determine the strategies that are actually used, among those potentially available, and therefore the effectiveness of an individual{\textquoteright}s performance. Finally, the presence of multiple strategies and multiple forms of competence greatly complicates the portrayal of developmental change. Rather than a unidimensional transition from a to b, the change process must be conceptualized in terms of multiple components following individual (although not independent) paths.
</p>
},
	url = {https://www.jstor.org/stable/1166059},
	author = {Kuhn D. and Garcia-Mila M. and Zohar A., and Anderson C.}
}
@article {102817,
	title = {The effect of the biology critical thinking project on the development of critical thinking},
	journal = {Journal of Research in Science Teaching},
	volume = {31},
	year = {1994},
	pages = {183-196},
	abstract = {<p style="text-align: justify;">
	This article describes the Biology Critical Thinking (BCT) project in which carefully designed activities for developing specific critical thinking skills are incorporated into the biology curriculum. The objectives were to find out whether the BCT project contributes to the development of critical thinking skills in various biological and nonbiological topics and how it affects students{\textquoteright} biological knowledge and classroom learning environment. The study consisted of 678 seventh graders who were assigned randomly into two groups that studied the same seventh-grade biology textbook. Only one group, the experimental, completed the BCT activities. The results indicate that the students in the experimental group improved their critical thinking skills compared to their own initial level and compared to their counterparts in the control group. Improved critical thinking skills were observed in a new biological context and nonbiological everyday topics, suggesting generalization of thinking skills across domains. The experimental students scored significantly higher than the control on a knowledge test, suggesting that {\textquotedblleft}knowledge of facts{\textquotedblright} as one educational goal and {\textquotedblleft}learning to think{\textquotedblright} as another, need not conflict, but rather can interact with each other. Finally, the results show that BCT involvement decreased the frequency of teacher-centered teaching and enhanced student-centered, more active learning.
</p>
},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660310208},
	author = {Zohar A., and Weinberger Y. and Tamir P.}
}
@article {102818,
	title = {Teaching a thinking strategy: transfer across domains and self  learning versus class-like setting},
	journal = {Applied Cognitive Psychology},
	volume = {8},
	year = {1994},
	pages = {549-564},
	abstract = {<p style="text-align: justify;">
	The purpose of this study is to investigate two issues related to the teaching of thinking skills: (1) transfer across domains; and (2) comparison between individual learning of a thinking strategy and {\textquoteleft}class-like{\textquoteright} setting, which consists of a didactic intervention that takes place in small groups. A microgenetic design was used, in which community college students engaged in investigation of problems (each student participated in 20 sessions). It was found that: (1) the control of variables strategy that was taught in the context of a problem in one domain transferred fully to a new problem in the same domain, hut transferred less well to an isomorphous problem in a different domain; (2) the {\textquoteleft}class-like{\textquoteright} setting contributed to improved performance (as measured by the frequency of valid inferences), with the didactic intervention seeming to contribute to this improvement; and (3) the learning environment described in this study had a larger effect on {\textquoteleft}slower learners{\textquoteright} than on {\textquoteleft}faster learners{\textquoteright}. It is proposed to teach for enhanced transfer by focusing explicitly on recognition of underlying logical structures of content-rich contexts.
</p>
},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.2350080603},
	author = {Zohar A.,}
}
@article {3128359,
	title = {The effect of age and of learning on the ability to distinguish between anthropomorphic and teleological explanations},
	journal = {International Journal of Science EducationInternational Journal of Science Education},
	volume = {15},
	year = {1993},
	note = {doi: 10.1080/0950069930150407},
	month = {1993},
	pages = {439 - 443},
	publisher = {Routledge},
	abstract = {The purpose of this study was to investigate whether there are developmental differences in teleological and anthropomorphic reasoning and whether biology students differ from non?biology students in teleological and anthropomorphic reasoning. The 168 high school and university participants responded to a Microcomputer?based Interactive Test (MBIT) which identified their anthropomorphic/teleological versus causal reasoning patterns. The findings of the study indicate that maturation contributes to the development of causal, non?teleological reasoning between tenth and twelfth grade. It was also shown that the study of biology is a major factor influencing the ability to distinguish between teleological and causal non?teleological reasoning. The educational implications of the study refer to the need to deal with the issue of causal, non?teleological reasoning explicitly and repeatedly during the study of biology.},
	isbn = {0950-0693},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/0950069930150407},
	author = {Friedler, Y. and Zohar, A. and Tamir, P.}
}
@article {102814,
	title = {Incorporating critical thinking within a regular highschool biology curriculum},
	journal = {School Science and Mathematics},
	volume = {93},
	year = {1993},
	pages = {136-140},
	url = {https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/48839265/j.1949-8594.1993.tb12211.x20160914-12814-1ttle4w.pdf?response-content-disposition=inline\%3B\%20filename\%3DIncorporating_Critical_Thinking_Into_a_R.pdf\&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256\&X-Amz-Credentia},
	author = {Zohar A., and Tamir P.}
}
@article {102813,
	title = {Anthropomorphism and teleology in reasoning about biological phenomena},
	journal = {Science Education},
	volume = {75},
	year = {1991},
	pages = {57-67},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730750106},
	author = {Zohar A., and Tamir P.}
}
@article {3128360,
	title = {Assessing students{\textquoteright} difficulties in causal reasoning in biology{\textemdash}a diagnostic instrument},
	journal = {Journal of Biological EducationJournal of Biological Education},
	volume = {25},
	year = {1991},
	note = {doi: 10.1080/00219266.1991.9655229},
	month = {1991},
	pages = {302 - 307},
	publisher = {Routledge},
	abstract = {Deficiencies in rational thinking skills are the source of many difficulties in science education. Characterization of these deficiencies is a first step in finding a possible remedy. The present paper describes an instrument for diagnosing students{\textquoteright} difficulties in causal reasoning while studying biology. The results provide evidence that, while studying various biological topics, students have difficulties in understanding logical relationships. Similar results were obtained from logically equivalent items in four different biological contexts. The two main difficulties found are (a) inability to organize events according to their correct temporal sequence and (b) inability to identify an event which had been caused by another (given) event. Possible implications for biology education are discussed.},
	isbn = {0021-9266},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.1991.9655229},
	author = {Zohar, Anat and Tamir, Pinchas}
}
@article {102812,
	title = {A new instrument to assess the inquiry characteristics of science computer software},
	journal = {Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching},
	volume = {6},
	year = {1986},
	pages = {44-47},
	abstract = {Describes the "Computer Software Inquiry Inventory" (CSI), which was designed for content analysis of inquiry-based science computer software. Explains the five basic features of the instrument. Includes analyses of two programs using the CSI categories of evaluation. (ML)},
	url = {https://www.learntechlib.org/p/138715/},
	author = {Zohar A., and Tamir P.}
}
